essence and art in the shāh-nāma and their reflection in persian literature

one of the central issues in shāh-nāma studies concerns the question of “essence” and “art.” in the shāh-nāma’s perspective, the demiurge has created the microcosm (humankind) and the macrocosm (the universe), each with a particular essence. both cannot but submit to the command of their essences. however, the creator has bestowed his discernment on the human world. for this reason, the human being is also possessed of another unique essence, attendant on the god-given discernment. according to the shāh-nāma, the human being, aided by art, can ultimately redeem the circularity of his or her nature through an uninterrupted destiny and close the circle of his or her perfection. the human being can thus be at the same time “by nature first”and“in order last.” we believe that all of the shāh-nāma can in fact be seen as a detailed exposition of the following verses: doth “man” imply one nature, one alone? thou know’st it may be but the feeble side of mortal man, wherein no trace is shown of aught beyond and yet two worlds agree – a might partnership – to furnish thee. by nature first, in order last, art thou; hold not thyself then lightly. (translation by arthur and edmond warner)